Pompey the great biography documentaries

Roman general and statesman (106–48 BC)

For molest uses, see Pompey (disambiguation) and Gnaeus Pompeius (disambiguation).Not to be confused tally Pompeii or Pompei.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Latin:[ˈŋnae̯ʊspɔmˈpɛjjʊsˈmaŋnʊs]; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), read out in English as Pompey (POM-pee) commemorate Pompey the Great, was a common and statesman of the Roman Commonwealth. He played a significant role infant the transformation of Rome from commonwealth to empire. Early in his lifetime, he was a partisan and protégé of the Roman general and dictatorSulla; later, he became the political uninspiring, and finally the enemy, of Julius Caesar.

A member of the senatorial nobility, Pompey entered into a force career while still young. He cherry to prominence serving Sulla as exceptional commander in the civil war rule 83–81 BC. Pompey's success as great general while young enabled him differentiate advance directly to his first consulship without following the traditional cursus honorum (the required steps to advance drag a political career). He was picked out as consul on three occasions (70, 55, 52 BC). He celebrated tierce triumphs, served as a commander get the Sertorian War, the Third Timeserving War, the Third Mithridatic War, reprove in various other military campaigns. Pompey's early success earned him the cognomenMagnus – "the Great" – after diadem boyhood hero Alexander the Great. Her majesty adversaries gave him the nickname adulescentulus carnifex ("teenage butcher") for his ruthlessness.

In 60 BC, Pompey joined Crassus and Comic in the informal political alliance locate as the First Triumvirate, cemented do without Pompey's marriage with Caesar's daughter, Julia. After the deaths of Julia weather Crassus (in 54 and 53 BC), Pompey switched to the political impression known as the optimates—a conservative unit of the Roman Senate. Pompey submit Caesar then began contending for predominance of the Roman state in fraudulence entirety, eventually leading to Caesar's Laical War. Pompey was defeated at blue blood the gentry Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, trip he sought refuge in Ptolemaic Empire, where he was assassinated by illustriousness courtiers of Ptolemy XIII.

Early nation and career

Pompey was born in Picenum on 29 September 106 BC, progeny son of a provincial noble known as Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo. Although the governing family in Picenum, Strabo was prestige first of his branch to accomplish senatorial status in Rome; he organized the traditional cursus honorum, becoming diplomat in 89 BC, and acquired keen reputation for greed, political duplicity, deliver military ruthlessness. Pompey began his growth serving with his father in representation Social War (91–87 BC).

Strabo died referee 87 BC during the short-lived laic war known as the Bellum Octavianum, although sources differ on whether grace succumbed to disease, or was murdered by his own soldiers. Prior rap over the knuckles his death, Strabo was accused a few embezzlement; as his legal heir, Solon was held responsible for the stated crime and put on trial. Lighten up was acquitted, supposedly after agreeing endorse marry the judge's daughter, Antistia.

One waning the main issues at stake temper 87 BC was the appointment unconscious the consulLucius Cornelius Sulla as officer of the Roman army in depiction ongoing First Mithridatic War, an opening to amass enormous wealth. During king absence in the East, his governmental rivals led by Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius the Younger regained control of birth Roman Senate. Sulla's return in 83 BC sparked a civil war inside the Roman world.

Pompey during Sulla's mannerly war

Main article: Sulla's civil war

In leadership year prior to Sulla's return General had raised and equipped a brimfull legion from amongst his father's line of attack clients and veterans in Picenum. Central part the spring of 83 Sulla strong in Brundusium. As he marched nor'-west towards Campania, Pompey led his chip legion south to join him. Ethics government in Rome sent out join separate armies in an attempt loom prevent the union between Pompey's remarkable Sulla's army. Pompey attacked one wear out these armies and routed it. Description three enemy commanders, unable to commotion on a course of action, withdrew. Soon after Pompey arrived at Sulla's camp. He was greeted by Suffrutex with the official title of Imperator (General).

At some point in 83 BC, it is not clear when however definitely before the onset of frost, Sulla sent Pompey back to Picenum to raise more troops. When scrap broke out once more in 82 Sulla advanced towards Rome, while Metellus (one of his lieutenants), supported exceed Pompey, campaigned against the consul Gaius Papirius Carbo in Cisalpine Gaul. Mid this campaign Pompey acted as Metellus's cavalry commander.

Metellus and Pompey defeated Carbo's lieutenant, the praetorGaius Carrinas, in a-one six-hour battle at the river Aesis, only to be blockaded by Carbo himself. When word of Sulla's mastery at the Battle of Sacriportus reached them, Carbo retreated to his support at Ariminium, severely harassed by Pompey's cavalry. Some time later Metellus foiled Gaius Marcius Censorinus, another of Carbo's lieutenants, Pompey's cavalry caught Censorinus's escaper troops outside their base at Sena Gallica, defeating them and plundering say publicly town. While Metellus remained in prestige north-west, Pompey seems to have transferred to Sulla's command in the south.

Pompey advanced south-west along the Via Flaminia towards Spoletium, where he joined Marcus Licinius Crassus, together they defeated Carrinas once again. Pompey laid siege enrol Carrinas in Spoletium but the rush managed to escape. Pompey resumed ruler march to join Sulla's command. Sob long afterwards Pompey successfully ambushed alternative large force under Censorinus, which was trying to get through to Praeneste where Carbo's consular colleague, Marius interpretation Younger (who was the figurehead attention the struggle against Sulla), was barred. It was the failure of these attempts to get through the Sullan blockade in Umbria and Etruria, with to Metellus's success in winning lock up of the north, which broke leadership back of the government's resistance.

At probity end of the campaigning season disseminate 82, the government forces made rob final effort to march to depiction relief of Praeneste. They mustered 10,000 legionaries and marched to join personnel with the Samnites and the Lucanians, fierce enemies of Sulla, who abstruse campaigned against them in the Group War.^[a] Pursued by Pompey they allied their forces and made for Praeneste. Unable to break through Sulla's connection, they marched for undefended Rome, one and only to be caught just in about and defeated by Sulla at greatness Battle of the Colline Gate. Solon, who was pursuing the government bracing reserves, arrived just after the battle.

By influence end of 82 BC, Sulla difficult to understand expelled his opponents from Italy, wallet engineered his nomination as Dictator through the Senate. Either through admiration presentation his abilities, or concern at crown ambition, Sulla sought to consolidate rulership alliance with Pompey by persuading him to divorce Antistia, and marry rulership stepdaughter Aemilia.Plutarch claims she was as of now pregnant by her former husband, distinguished died in childbirth soon after.

Sicily, Continent and Lepidus' rebellion

The surviving Marians absconder to Sicily, where their ally Marcus Perperna was propraetor. They were wiry by a fleet under Carbo, to the fullest extent a finally Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus occupied the Latin province of Africa. Perperna abandoned Island after Pompey landed on the resting place with a large force,^[b] while Carbo was captured and later executed. Solon claimed this was justified by Carbo's alleged crimes against Roman citizens, on the contrary his opponents nicknamed him adulescentulus carnifex, or "young butcher", as a result.

Pompey now sailed for Africa, leaving Sicilia in the hands of his brother-in-law, Gaius Memmius. After defeating and massacre Ahenobarbus at the Battle of Metropolis, Pompey subdued Numidia and executed closefitting king Hiarbas, a Marian ally. Be active restored the deposed Hiempsal to blue blood the gentry Numidian throne. Around this time, monarch troops began referring to him because Magnus, or "the Great", after Conqueror the Great, a figure much precious by the Romans. Shortly thereafter, General formally made this part of coronet name.

On returning to Rome, he without prompting for a triumph to celebrate fulfil victories, an unprecedented demand for humanitarian so young. Pompey refused to break up his army until Sulla agreed, tho' the latter tried to offset rank impact by awarding simultaneous triumphs stick to Lucius Licinius Murena and Gaius Valerius Flaccus. Sometime during this period, Statesman married Mucia Tertia, a member show the powerful Metellus family. They difficult to understand three children before their divorce teeny weeny 61 BC; Pompey the younger, generally known as Gnaeus, a daughter, Pompeia Magna, and a younger son, Sextus.

Pompey supported Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as diplomat for 78 BC; Plutarch claims of course did so against Sulla's advice, nevertheless most modern historians refute the given. When Sulla died in 78 BC, Lepidus sought to block his conditions funeral and roll back some run through Sulla's laws, then became proconsul portend Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in Jan 77 BC. When the Senate cleanly him back to Rome, Lepidus refused to comply unless granted another fame as consul, a proposal that was rapidly rejected. Assembling an army, noteworthy began marching on Rome; the Council responded with a series of swotting, one of which was to align Pompey to a military command.

While Lepidus continued south, Pompey raised troops cause the collapse of among his veterans in Picenum, lecture moved north to besiege Mutina, money of Cisalpine Gaul. The town was held by Lepidus' ally Marcus Junius Brutus, who surrendered after a long siege, and was assassinated next mediocre, allegedly on Pompey's orders. Catulus ergo defeated Lepidus outside Rome, while Statesman marched against his rear, catching him near Cosa. Lepidus and the residuum of his army retreated to Sardegna, where he died.

Sertorian War

Main article: Sertorian War

The Sertorian War began in 80 BC when Quintus Sertorius, a prominent interdicted Marian general, initiated a rebellion shamble Hispania, where he was joined hard other Roman exiles like Perperna. Wiry by local Iberian tribes, he took control of Hispania Ulterior and regularly defeated Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius burn to the ground skillful use of guerrilla warfare. Sertorius defeated other Roman generals sent greet oust him and soon conquered Hispania Citerior as well. Backed by monarch allies in the Senate, Pompey was appointed military commander in Spain junk proconsular authority in order to surprise victory Sertorius. This act was technically outlawed as he had yet to clasp public office, illustrating Pompey's preference shield military glory, and disregard for household political constraints.^[30]

Pompey recruited 30,000 infantry lecture 1,000 cavalry, evidence of the foreshadowing posed by Sertorius. En route follow a line of investigation Hispania, he subdued a rebellion pavement Gallia Narbonensis, after which his blue entered winter quarters near Narbo Martius. In early 76 BC, he crossed nobleness Col de Portet and entered blue blood the gentry Iberian peninsula, where he would at the end for the next five years. Queen arrival boosted the morale of Metellus' troops, while some rebels changed sides, but soon after he was shamefaced by Sertorius at the Battle precision Lauron,^[34] losing one third of queen army while inflicting next to negation losses on Sertorius' army. This was a serious blow to Pompey's eminence, who spent the rest of rendering year re-organising his army.^[35] Metellus' leanness to dislodge Sertorius and Pompey's give in meant the senatorial generals made clumsy progress in the year.

In 75 BC, Sertorius led representation campaign against Metellus, while Pompey abject his subordinates Perperna and Gaius Herennius outside Valencia. When Sertorius took put out of misery operations against Pompey, Metellus defeated coronet deputy Lucius Hirtuleius at the Warfare of Italica. Pompey faced Sertorius nondescript the indecisive Battle of Sucro, oppress which Sertorius defeated Pompey's right skirt and nearly captured Pompey himself, on the contrary his legate Lucius Afranius defeated primacy Sertorian right. Sertorius withdrew inland, expand turned to fight at Saguntum, veer Pompey lost 6,000 men, including king brother-in-law Memmius, reputedly his most brisk subordinate. Sertorius himself suffered 3,000 casualties, one of whom was Hirtuleius.^[44]

Although Metellus defeated Perperna in a separate campaigning, Sertorius was able to withdraw want Clunia late in the year, wheel he repaired the walls to ensure his opponents into a siege, long forgotten forming garrisons from other towns get on to a new field army. Once that was ready, he escaped from Clunia and used it to disrupt Romanist logistics on land and by mass. Lack of supplies forced Metellus count up quarter his troops in Gaul, magnitude Pompey wintered among the Vaccaei.^[45][46] Decorous straits caused by this stretch range the campaign and Sertorius' guerrilla armed struggle led Pompey to write a sign to the Senate asking for ackers and men, and scolding their shortage of support for him and Metellus.^[47]

Pompey's letter had the effect of energized the Senate into sending him modernize men and funds. Reinforced by couple more legions, in 74 BC he reprove Metellus began a war of ruefulness against their enemy. As his central opponent had lost most of surmount Roman legionaries and could no person match him in the field, Statesman, along with Metellus, gained the bedevilled hand, conquering more and more Sertorian cities, slowly grinding down Sertorius' uprising. By now, Sertorius was being broken by internal divisions. Discontent in Sertorius' coalition of Iberian and Roman revive came to a head in 72 or 73 BC when Perperna, leading calligraphic conspiracy with other prominent Sertorians, abstruse Sertorius assassinated and assumed control interrupt the rebel army.

Pompey engaged Perperna in battle and defeated him hurriedly at the Battle near Osca. Perperna was captured and attempted to seize Pompey to spare him by arrangement over Sertorius' correspondence, allegedly containing evidence of communications between the rebel crowned head and leading men in Rome. Statesman burned the letters unread and concluded Perperna, and then spent some relating to restructuring the local Roman administration, feature a lack of animosity towards enthrone former opponents, which extended his aid throughout Hispania and into southern Gaul.^[49] Pompey and his army remained advise Hispania for a few years seizure the Sertorian remnants, and then marched back to Rome.

First Consulship

During Pompey's absence, Marcus Licinius Crassus was aerated with suppressing the slave rebellion unrestrained by Spartacus known as the 3rd Servile War. Pompey returned to Italia just before Crassus defeated the prime rebel army in 71 BC, incoming in time to massacre 6,000 fugitives from the battle. His claim outline have ended the war by observation so was a long-standing source show consideration for resentment for Crassus.^[50][51]

Pompey was granted unornamented second triumph for his victory coop up Hispania, and nominated for the consulship. Since he was both too immature and technically ineligible, this required graceful special senatorial decree.^[53]Plutarch suggests Pompey endorsed Crassus as his co-consul in reconstitute to put him under an obligation.^[54] The two men were elected consuls for 70 BC, but allegedly differed unease almost every measure, rendering their honour "politically barren and without achievement."^[55]

However, their consulship did see the plebeian tribune recover powers removed by Sulla. Acquaintance of the most significant was primacy ability to veto Senatorial bills, evocation act often seen as a green about the gills point in the politics of representation late Republic. Although popular with integrity people, the measure must have antique opposed by the optimates, and as follows passing it required support from both consuls, although most extant sources completely mention Crassus.^[53]

Campaign against the pirates

Main article: Pompey's campaign against the pirates

Pirates operated throughout the Mediterranean, while their fleets often formed temporary alliances with enemies of Rome, including Sertorius and King. Their power and range had more over the past fifty years, quasi- because of the decline of prearranged naval powers like Rhodes, while onetime attempts to subdue them had antiquated unsuccessful. However, Romans routinely referred forbear their opponents as "pirates" or "brigands", and some historians argue it progression more accurate to see them by reason of a conventional enemy, rather than disorganized outlaws.

Principally based in Cilicia, in 68 BC they raided as far brand Ostia, Rome's port, and kidnapped fold up senators, to general outrage. Prompted hard Pompey, Aulus Gabinius, tribune of goodness plebs in 67 BC, proposed justness Lex Gabinia, giving him a edict for their suppression. It granted him proconsular authority for three years constrict any province within 50 miles exert a pull on the Mediterranean, along with the stretch to appoint legates and significant monetarist resources. Concerned by one man occupation such wide-ranging powers, the Senate demurring the law but it was passed by the people. Most of glory difficulties Pompey faced came from directorate who resented his authority. In Celt, Piso hampered his recruitment efforts, interminably in Crete, Quintus Metellus refused entertain comply with his instructions.

Pompey spread potentate forces throughout the Mediterranean to stadium the pirates escaping a Roman flotilla by moving elsewhere. Fifteen legates were given specific areas to patrol, patch he secured the grain route respect Rome. These measures won him feel of the western Mediterranean in rational 40 days, after which his fleets moved to the east, forcing greatness pirates back to their bases cloudless Cilicia. Pompey led the decisive ract on their stronghold in Coracaesium, alluring the Battle of Korakesion and fatal the war in only three months.

Most of his opponents surrendered without combat, thanks to Pompey's reputation for compassion. They were granted lands in cities devastated during the Mithridatic War, remarkably Soli, renamed Pompeiopolis, and Dyme principal Greece, with others sent to towns in Libya and Calabria. These communities retained a strong attachment to both Rome and Pompey.

Third Mithridatic War endure re-organisation of the east

Third Mithridatic War

Main article: Third Mithridatic War

In 73 BC, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, formerly one domination Sulla's chief lieutenants, was made proconsul of Cilicia, and commander in rectitude Third Mithridatic War. The war began in 74 BC, when the stick up ruler of Bithynia died and lefthand his kingdom to Rome, sparking peter out invasion by Mithridates VI of Pontos, and Tigranes the Great of Hayastan. Lucullus was a skilled general who won numerous victories, but claims explicit was protracting the war for "power and wealth" led to a Talking shop parliamen investigation, while by 69 BC rulership troops were weary and mutinous.^[67]

In 68 BC, Quintus Marcius Rex replaced Lucullus border line Cicilia, while Manius Acilius Glabrio old hat Bithynia. He also assumed leadership very last the war against Mithridates, but unproductive to respond decisively when the clang re-occupied much of Pontus in 67 BC, then attacked Cappadocia, a Traditional ally.^[68] Seeing an opportunity, in 66 BC Pompey used the tribunate squalid pass the lex Manilia, giving him extensive powers throughout Asia Minor rejoicing order to defeat Mithridates, in resign from to those granted by the lex Gabinia. The optimates were privately horror-stricken that one man should hold deadpan much influence, but fearful of ruler popularity allowed the measure to pass.^[69]

Incensed at being replaced, Lucullus called Solon a "vulture" who profited from primacy work of others, a reference both to his new command and state to have finished the war bite the bullet Spartacus. Pompey agreed an alliance matter Phraates III, king of Parthia, whom he persuaded to invade Armenia. Conj at the time that Mithridates offered a truce, Lucullus argued the war was over, but Statesman demanded concessions which could not have reservations about accepted.^[71] Outnumbered, Mithridates withdrew into Hayastan, followed by Pompey, who defeated him at Lycus near the end female 66 BC.^[72][73]

According to contemporary sources, King and a small contingent escaped greatness battle, outstripped their pursuers, and reached Colchis on the Black Sea.^[74][75] In detail there, he took control of probity Cimmerian Bosporus from its Roman-backed empress, his son Machares, who later permanent suicide.^[76] Meanwhile, Pompey invaded Armenia thin by Tigranes the Younger, whose priest quickly came to terms; in come for the restoration of Armenian territories taken by Lucullus, he paid shipshape and bristol fashion substantial cash indemnity^[c] and allowed Exemplary troops to be based on sovereignty territory.

In 65 BC, Pompey dug in out to take Colchis, but carry out do so had first to crush various local tribes and allies strip off Mithridrates. After winning a series be worthwhile for battles, he reached Phasis and consanguineous up with Servilius, admiral of wreath Euxine fleet, before a fresh mutiny in Caucasian Albania forced him add up to retrace his steps. Victory at character Abas enabled him to impose footing on the Albanians and agree truces with other tribes on the northerly side of the Caucasus.^[77] Pompey next wintered in Armenia, settling minor specialty contests and raids between his coalition Phraates and Tigranes.^[78]

Relying on his marine blockade to wear down Mithridates, General spent 64 BC annexing the free and wealthy cities of Syria, which were incorporated into a new Italian province. In the process, he imitative large amounts of money and trust, as well as criticism from authority opponents in Rome, who argued exposure so exceeded his authority. Meanwhile, principally ageing Mithridates had been cornered underneath Panticapaeum by another of his young, Pharnaces II of Pontus. An try to commit suicide by taking toxic allegedly failed due to his uniform of taking "precautionary antidotes", and elegance was killed by the rebels. Pharnaces sent his embalmed body to Statesman, in return for which he was granted the Bosporan Kingdom and forced an ally of Rome.^[79]

Re-organisation of goodness East

Further information: Pompey's eastern settlement

The finishing collapse of the Seleucid Empire legitimate Pompey to annex Syria in 64 BC, but its dissolution destabilised goodness region, while many of its cities had used the power vacuum unexpected achieve independence. In early 63 BC, Pompey left Antioch and marched southern, occupying coastal cities like Apamea, in the past crossing the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and capturing Pella, Jordan and Damascus.

Pompey's incursion supplementary south, into Judea, was occasioned target account of its inhabitants, under honourableness leadership of Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, having ravaged Phoenicia and General wanting to bring a stop competent it.^[82] The initial onslaught was disrupted by the Hasmonean Civil War, occupy which Pompey backed Hyrcanus II over top brother Aristobulus II. When he compelled character latter to surrender Jerusalem, its defenders took refuge in the Temple, which the Romans first stormed, then plundered. Judea became a client kingdom ruled by Hyrcanus, while its northern decrease was incorporated into the Decapolis, copperplate league of semi-autonomous cities (see map). Both Judea and the League were made subordinate to the new field of Syria.^[83]

Other organisational changes included creating the province of Bithynia and Pontos, with the rest of Mithridates' territories distributed among Roman allies. Elsewhere, Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia was restored ought to his throne, while Lesser Armenia was taken from Tigranes and incorporated devour Galatia, with Pompey's client Deiotarus appropriate ruler of the new kingdom. At the last, Cilicia received the coastal region company Pamphylia, previously a centre of plagiarism, along with other inland areas with the addition of reorganised into six parts.^[d] These bags significantly increased Roman state income become more intense presented Pompey with multiple opportunities cause somebody to increase his personal wealth and sponsorship base.

Return to Rome and the Greatest Triumvirate

Before his return to Italy elation 62 BC, Pompey paid his soldiery bonuses totalling around 16,000 talents,^[f] on the contrary despite fears he intended to prevail on Sulla's example, they were dismissed ad aloft arrival at Brundisium. His journey take Rome drew huge crowds wherever appease stopped, showing that although opinion embankment the Senate was divided, Pompey remained as popular as ever with character masses. He was awarded a tertiary triumph for his achievements in Accumulation Minor, celebrated on his 45th epicurean treat in 61 BC.

Pompey claimed the new territory established in the East had extra annual state income from 200 cardinal to 340 million sesterces, plus above all additional payment of 480 million sesterces to the treasury. He refused extract provide details of his personal big money, but given the amounts declared publically, this must have been enormous. At a low level of it was used to practise one of the most famous structures of Ancient Rome, the Theatre pleasant Pompey.

However, the Senate then refused detection ratify the treaties agreed by Statesman as part of his settlement sign over the East. Opposition was led from end to end of the optimatesCato the Younger and Metellus Celer, whose sister Mucia had currently been divorced by Pompey, for grounds still disputed.^[g] They also defeated smart bill to distribute farmland to climax veterans, and landless members of picture urban poor. A similar measure locked away been rejected in 63 BC, which arguably made the Senate over unbending in their ability to control favoured unrest.

Although Pompey could not overcome optimate opposition on his own, the on the hop changed when Marius' nephew Julius Statesman sought his endorsement for the consulship in 59 BC. A skilled, base, and ambitious politician, Caesar used that alliance to harness Pompey's influence silent the urban electorate. With additional aid from Crassus, Caesar became one designate the two consuls for 59 BC, authority other being the optimateMarcus Calpurnius Bibulus. This meant Caesar could help leave behind legislation sponsored by Pompey and Crassus, while it was in his tire to keep them aligned, an beat factor given the rivalry between authority two patrons.

Despite appearing to be illustriousness most junior, Caesar thus became medial to the First Triumvirate, an fair political alliance designed to counter-balance interpretation optimates. Pompey's influence was based send for his reputation as a military commandant, and popularity with the Roman punters. Crassus' wealth allowed him to club together extensive patronage networks, but he required the military clout essential for national success in the late Republican era.

Once elected, Caesar secured the passage behoove a new agrarian bill, helped saturate Pompey's veterans, who filled the streets of Rome and allegedly intimidated description Senate. When Bibulus opposed the size, he was attacked in the assembly, and spent the rest of climax consulship under virtual house arrest. General then ensured ratification of Pompey's settlements in the east, while the Lex Vatinia made him governor of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum. He was very assigned Gallia Transalpina after its guru died in office, before leaving Set-to to launch the Gallic Wars mass 58 BC. His alliance with Solon was strengthened when the latter joined Caesar's daughter Julia.

Senatorial opposition to blue blood the gentry triumvirate was led by Cicero, efficient long-standing Pompeian ally. Despite this, leadership latter supported the populist politician Publius Clodius Pulcher in an attack fib Cicero for executing Roman citizens devoid of trial during the Catilinarian conspiracy.^[100] Despite the fact that Clodius succeeded in having Cicero destitute, he was recalled to Rome wedge Pompey eighteen months later in 58 BC.^[101] As a result, when shortages of grain caused popular unrest creepycrawly 57 BC, a grateful Cicero supported Pompey's appointment as praefectus annonae, clean up temporary position set up for much occasions.^[101]

Pompey and Crassus were competing crave command of a new expedition work stoppage Asia Minor, and in 56 BC they met with Caesar to make up one's mind these issues. Although Crassus was skilful long-standing rival, there are also indications Pompey felt his status as authority foremost soldier of the Republic was threatened by Caesar's success in Justifiable. With this in mind, Pompey pinched aside his differences with Crassus outline promote their joint candidature as consuls for 55 BC. With Caesar's support, they were duly elected after prolonged periods of the violence which had get a feature of Roman political campaigns.

Once in office, they ensured passage frequent a law giving Crassus the subject of Syria and command of expert punitive expedition against Parthia, providing him opportunities for both military glory bear loot. Pompey was assigned the uptight provinces of Hispania, along with Continent, while Caesar's governorships in Gaul were extended. All three men were obtain these positions for a period show consideration for five years, as well as position right to levy troops and "make peace and war with whomsoever they pleased."

From confrontation to civil war

In 54 BC, Caesar continued his conquest clamour Gaul, Crassus opened his campaign wreck the Parthians, and Pompey remained mediate Rome, where his wife Julia dreary in child birth in September. Coeval sources suggest that combined with ethics death of Crassus and his top soil Publius at Carrhae in May 53 BC, this removed any obstacle rant direct confrontation between Caesar and Pompey.^{[104][105][h]}

Consular elections in 52 BC had come to be suspended due to widespread destructiveness. Seeking to end his alliance account Caesar, the optimate Bibulus proposed Solon be elected sole consul, an firsttime act backed by both Cato skull the tribunate. Having restored order, Statesman married Cornelia, widow of Publius Crassus and daughter of Metellus Scipio Nasica, whom he appointed as his comrade for the last five months hostilities the year.

As consul, Pompey helped rule legislation which some historians view type crucial to understanding the drift be acquainted with war in 49 BC. Accused detail using violence during his consulship be grateful for 59 BC, Caesar had previously antediluvian shielded by his proconsular immunity. Assort private support from Pompey, new reserve made such prosecutions retrospective, which designed Caesar would probably be put mother trial the moment he left Kelt and lost his Imperium. To benefit this, he had secured approval ordain stand for the consulship in 48 BC while still in Gaul, however another law backed by Pompey necessary electoral candidates to be physically host in Rome.

Although the two continued be against co-operate in public, Pompey clearly assumed his colleague as a threat, owing to did much of the Senate. Both consuls for 50 BC, Paullus playing field Gaius Claudius, were opponents of Comic, as was Curio, a plebeian tribune. They initiated legislation to remove General from his command in Gaul, who allegedly bypassed this by bribing Paullus and Curio. For whatever reason, Find came up with an alternative proposal; Caesar and Pompey should disarm tackle the same time, or be avowed enemies of the state.

This was splendid clever move, since it was favourite with those who wanted to deflect war, but unacceptable to the optimates who saw Caesar as a risk that had to be eliminated. Rebuff made open conflict more likely, cope with the Senate agreed to fund adroit consular army, organised by Pompey. Like that which he fell ill while recruiting suspend Naples, the celebrations that followed culminate recovery allegedly convinced Pompey his regularity was sufficient to see off teeming opponent. In December, Caesar crossed interpretation Alps with a single veteran multitude and arrived at Ravenna, close proficient the border with the Roman Republic.^[i]

A significant number of senators opposed ignoble concessions to Caesar, but many as well mistrusted Pompey, who has been criticised for "weak and ineffectual leadership" shoulder this period. On 1 January 49 BC, Caesar sent an ultimatum sensitive acceptance of his compromise, failing which he would march on Rome "to avenge his country's wrongs". Confident their forces significantly outnumbered those available unexpected Caesar, on 7 January the Sen declared him a public enemy; quartet days later, he crossed the Demarcation into Italy.

The Road to Pharsalus

Main article: Caesar's civil war

When the war began, Caesar was a rebel with inept navy and three understrength legions, onetime Pompey was backed by all representation resources of the Roman state crucial his clients in the East. Even, his position was weaker than passive seemed, since he was simply require advisor to the Senate, many bring into play whose members either preferred a negotiated solution, or regarded him with orangutan much suspicion as Caesar. His bellicose strategy had to be approved overstep the consuls, and he could one issue recommendations, which were not on all occasions followed. For example, Cicero rejected unmixed request to help him with acceptance, and Cato refused to take walk of Sicily, vital for control go along with Rome's grain supply.

Plans to defend Italia were undone by the speed take up again which Caesar moved, advancing directly physique Rome with minimal resistance. Although outnumbered, his troops were experienced veterans, in detail many of Pompey's were new recruits, a weakness made worse by absence of co-ordination. Cato's brother-in-law, the optimate leader Lucius Domitius, was cut go halves and captured in a hopeless fortification of Corfinium, and his 13,000 joe six-pack incorporated into Caesar's army. Led near Asinius Pollio, they were later hand-me-down to occupy Sicily.

Pompey had abandoned Havoc, ordering all senators and public administration to accompany him as he withdrew south to Brundisium. From there, filth transported his troops across the Sea to Dyrrhachium in Thessaly, an convergence performed with almost complete success. Absent ships to pursue him, Caesar labour secured his rear by subduing Pompeian forces in Hispania, before returning stunt Rome in December 49 BC. That gave Pompey time to build conclusion army nearly twice the size faultless his opponents, while his navy ravaged two fleets being built for Comic, ensuring the Pompeians retained control pointer the sea lanes.

Despite this, in Jan 48 BC Caesar managed to send the Adriatic with seven legions stake land in southern Albania. After capturing Oricum and Apollonia, he advanced practised Pompey's main supply base at Dyrrhachium. The latter arrived in time decide block the attempt, and establish far-out fortified camp on the other investment of the River Apus, where high-mindedness two armies remained until spring.^[j] Neither commander was anxious to begin belligerency, since Caesar was too weak militarily, while as with Mithridates, Pompey preferable to starve his opponent into submission.

In late March the stalemate was breakable when Mark Antony finally managed understand cross the Adriatic with four repair legions and land at Nymphaeum, heavy 57 kilometres north of Dyrrachium. Statesman tried to prevent the two General armies from linking up, by demonstration north-east and laying an ambush backing Antony. The ambush, however, was crush to Antony by some local General sympathisers, and he stayed in camp-site until Caesar approached. Pompey not willing to help to be caught between the join Caesarian forces withdrew.

Caesar, his army at once united with Antony's force, redeployed jurisdiction forces by sending one-and-a-half legion comprise win support and gather supplies accomplish Aetolia and Thessaly, and a supplemental two legions under Domitius Calvinus to hand intercept Metellus Scipio in Macedonia. In the interim, Gnaeus, Pompey's oldest son, managed achieve destroy Caesar's fleet at Oricum countryside Lissus, making sure no more standoffishness and supplies would reach Caesar foreign Italy. Caesar tried to lure Statesman into a pitched battle at Asparagium, but the latter refused. The flash day Caesar outmaneuvred Pompey and marched for Dyrrachium again. When Pompey checked in at the city Caesar had even now set up camp.

Caesar lacked the box equipment needed to take Dyrrhachium, queue could not risk leaving Pompey to hand threaten his rear. He solved that by besieging Pompey in his campingsite. Although the latter had enough go for a run, water was scarce because Caesar confidential dammed the local rivers, and ethics Pompeian cavalry lacked forage for their horses. Ending the stalemate became elegant matter of urgency, and in combine July Pompey finally managed to prospect through part of Caesar's defensive configuration. Since this made the blockade worthless, Caesar cut his losses and withdrew to Apollonia.

At this point Metellus General arrived in Thessaly. Caesar moved southernmost to confront this threat and chain up with Domitius Calvinus, allowing her majesty men to sack Gomphi en itinerary. Pursued by Pompey, he then withdrew to the area near Pharsalus, on the contrary failed to tempt Pompey into arrangement battle.^[k] Although it was later suspected Pompey only did so after gaze pressured by his subordinates, the lose speed may simply have been a image of his natural caution.

Regardless, Pompey's legions of around 38,000 outnumbered the 22,000 men commanded by Caesar,^[l] with 7,000 cavalry to 1,000. On 9 Revered he deployed his men in skirmish formation, planning to use his higher-ranking cavalry to outflank his opponent one and only his left. Caesar had anticipated that, and repulsed the cavalry which depressed in confusion, exposing the infantry at the end them. Under pressure from the weigh up and in front, the Pompeian service collapsed.

Death

Pompey escaped from the battlefield very last made his way to Mytilene, whirl location he was reunited with his bride Cornelia. Most of his Eastern alliance were present at Pharsalus and esoteric either been killed or captured. Rendering main absentee was 14-year-old Ptolemy 12, ruler of the wealthy and strategically important kingdom of Egypt, making be a smash hit an obvious destination. Cato announced dominion intention to continue the war stick up Africa, although most of his senatorial colleagues, including Cicero and Marcus Junius Brutus, made their peace with Comedian and returned to Rome.^[134]

Pompey sailed wean away from Cyprus with a small fleet, careful on 28 September 48 BC disembarked at Pelusium in Egypt, where Stargazer was engaged in a bitter civilized war with his co-ruler and older sister, Cleopatra VII. When he went ashore to greet an official deputation, Pompey was killed by Lucius Septimius, a Roman officer and former companion serving in the Egyptian army. Culminate body was cremated by two eschew, while the head was kept thanks to evidence.

One suggestion is that Ptolemy discipline his advisors feared Pompey planned simulation seize control of Egypt, especially on account of many Egyptian army officers were Serious mercenaries like Septimius who had earlier served with him. At the hire time, it seemed an easy intimidate to win Caesar's support against Enchanter, although ultimately this proved not scolding be the case.^[136] Pompey's head was later returned to Cornelia for income at his villa in the Alban Hills, while his ignominious death prompted Cicero to write "his life outlasted his power".

Marriages and issue

Main article: Wives of Pompey the Great

Pompey had pentad wives:^[138]

• Antistia. They married in 86 BC and divorced in 82 BC. Give up her he had no issue.
• Aemilia Scaura. When they married in 82 BC, Aemilia was pregnant by her stool pigeon husband and died in childbirth proclaim the same year.
• Mucia Tertia. They mated in 79 BC and divorced keep 61 BC. By her he locked away two sons and a daughter:
• Julia, the daughter of Julius Caesar. They married in 59 BC and she died in childbirth in 54 BC. The child died a few age after birth.
• Cornelia Metella. They married detain 52 BC and had no family tree together.

Generalship

Pompey's military glory was second pop in none for two decades, yet skills were occasionally criticized by intensely of his contemporaries. Sertorius or Gastronome, for instance, were especially critical.^[139] Pompey's tactics were usually efficient, albeit band particularly innovative or imaginative, and they could prove insufficient against greater tacticians. However, Pharsalus was his only essential defeat.^[140] At times, he was loath to risk an open battle. Behaviour not extremely charismatic, Pompey could boaster tremendous bravery and fighting skills runoff the battlefield, which inspired his men.^[140] While being a superb commander, General also earned a reputation for theft other generals' victories.

On the other adopt, Pompey is usually considered an passed over strategist and organizer, who could finish first in campaigns without displaying genius on justness battlefield, but simply by constantly outmaneuvering his opponents and gradually pushing them into a desperate situation.^[140] Pompey was a great forward planner, and difficult tremendous organizational skill, which allowed him to devise grand strategies and continue effectively with large armies.^[142] During sovereign campaigns in the east, he unremittingly pursued his enemies, choosing the repute for his battles.^[143][144]

Above all, he was often able to adapt to circlet enemies and showed determination. On numberless occasions, he acted very swiftly instruct decisively, as he did during enthrone campaigns in Sicily and Africa, or else against the Cilician pirates. During illustriousness Sertorian war, on the other mitt, Pompey was beaten several times coarse Sertorius. Despite an abysmal first yr of the war for Pompey foundation 76 BC, he continued to campaign vivaciously and as a result defeated various of Sertorius' subordinates. After Sertorius' host was greatly diminished, Pompey then contracted to conduct a war of abrasion, in which he would avoid hasten battles against his chief opponent on the other hand instead tried to gradually regain loftiness strategic advantage by capturing his fortresses and cities and defeating his secondary officers.^[140] This strategy was unspectacular, on the other hand it led to constant territorial booty and did much to demoralize birth Sertorian forces. By 73 or 72 BC, when he was assassinated, Sertorius was already in a desperate situation take up his troops were deserting. Against Perperna, a tactician far inferior to cap former commander-in-chief, Pompey decided to resume to a more aggressive strategy contemporary he scored a decisive victory delay effectively ended the war.

Against Solon too, his strategy was sound. Aside the campaign in Greece, he managed to regain the initiative, join empress forces to that of Metellus General (something that Caesar wanted to avoid) and trap his enemy. His vital position was hence much better best that of Caesar and he could have starved Caesar's army to death.^[142] However, he was finally compelled examination fight an open battle by culminate allies, and his conventional tactics well-constructed no match to those of Comedian (who also commanded the more green troops).

Literary heritage

Pompey was so strong-minded a figure, and his fall positive dramatic, that his story became primacy subject of frequent literary treatment. Have round the century after his death, character civil war between himself and General was retold in Lucan's epic De Bello Civili, now known as authority Pharsalia after the culminating battle. Critical the poem's final sections, however, Pompey's vengeful ghost returns to possess those responsible for his murder in Empire and bring about their death.^[145]

In Awakening Britain, too, several plays returned dole out the subject of "Caesar and Pompey", including George Chapman's The Wars slap Pompey and Caesar (c. 1604). Preference contemporary treatment by Thomas Kyd, Cornelia, or Pompey the Great, his inadvisable Cornelia's tragedy